Difference between revisions of "Constitutional reforms of Julius Caesar"

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The '''constitutional reforms of [[Julius Caesar]]''' were a series of laws to the [[Constitution of the Roman Republic]] enacted between 49 and 44 BC, during Caesar's [[Roman dictator|dictatorship]]. Caesar was murdered in 44 BC before the implications of his constitutional actions could be realized.
The '''constitutional reforms of [[Julius Caesar]]''' were a series of laws to the [[Constitution of the Roman Republic]] enacted between 49 and 44 BC, during Caesar's [[Roman dictator|dictatorship]]. Caesar was murdered in 44 BC before the implications of his constitutional actions could be realized.


==Julius Caesar's constitutional framework {{bc-c|6th}} century ({{bc-y|600|t|602}}-{{bc-y|501}})==
==Julius Caesar's constitutional framework {{bc-c|6th}} century ({{bc-y|600}}-{{bc-y|501}})==


During his early career, Caesar had seen how chaotic and dysfunctional the Roman Republic had become. The republican machinery had broken down under the weight of imperialism, the central government had become powerless, the provinces had been transformed into independent principalities under the absolute control of their governors, and the army had replaced the constitution as the means of accomplishing political goals. With a weak central government, political corruption had spiraled out of {{bc-c|13th|b}} control, and the status quo had been maintained by a corrupt aristocracy, which saw no need to change a system which had made all of its members quite rich.
During his early career, Caesar had seen how chaotic and dysfunctional the Roman Republic had become. The republican machinery had broken down under the weight of imperialism, the central government had become powerless, the provinces had been transformed into independent principalities under the absolute control of their governors, and the army had replaced the constitution as the means of accomplishing political goals. With a weak central government, political corruption had spiraled out of {{bc-c|13th|b}} control, and the status quo had been maintained by a corrupt aristocracy, which saw no need to change a system which had made all of its members quite rich.
Date in book title {{bc-y|123 BC|t}}. Date in quote {{bc-y|234 BC|q}}.


ad was made c. 31–20 BC, the body sculpted {{bc-y|20}}
ad was made c. 31–20 BC, the body sculpted {{bc-y|20}}
List example: 45, 35, 28 BC.
[[Image:Caesar augustus.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Augustus as a magistrate; the statue's marble head was made c. 31–20 BC, the body sculpted in the 2nd century AD]]
Testing AD patterns:
yearRangeWithLeadingADPattern AD 120 - c. 300
yearRangeWithTrailingADPattern 121 - c. 301 AD
yearRangeWithSlashAndTrailingADPattern
yearRangeWithSlashAndTrailingCEPattern
yearRangeWithLeadingCEPattern. CE 120 - c. 300
yearRangeWithTrailingCEPattern 122 - c. 302 CE
Testing BCD template:
{{bcd|y|100}} {{bcd|y|100|t}}  {{bcd|y|100|t|101}} {{bcd|y|100||101}}
{{bcd|y1|100}} {{bcd|y1|100|t}}  {{bcd|y1|100|t|101}} {{bcd|y1|100||101}}
{{bcd|y2|100}} {{bcd|y2|100|t}}  {{bcd|y2|100|t|101}} {{bcd|y2|100||101}}
{{bcd|i|100}} {{bcd|i|100|t}}  {{bcd|i|100|t|101}} {{bcd|i|100||101}}
{{bcd|i2|100}} {{bcd|i2|100|t}}  {{bcd|i2|100|t|101}} {{bcd|i2|100||101}}
{{bcd|d|100}} {{bcd|d|100|t}}  {{bcd|d|100|t|101}} {{bcd|d|100||101}}
{{bcd|sd|100}} {{bcd|sd|100|t}}  {{bcd|sd|100|t|101}} {{bcd|sd|100||101}}
{{bcd|dp|100}} {{bcd|dp|100|t}}  {{bcd|dp|100|t|101}} {{bcd|dp|100||101}}
{{bcd|c|100}} {{bcd|c|100}}  {{bcd|c|100|101}} {{bcd|c|100|101}}
{{bcd|m|100}} {{bcd|m|100}}  {{bcd|m|100|101}} {{bcd|m|100|101}}
{{bcd|00s|100}} {{bcd|00s|100|t}}  {{bcd|00s|100|t|101}} {{bcd|00s|100||101}}
{{bcd|000s|100}} {{bcd|000s|100|t}}  {{bcd|000s|100|t|101}} {{bcd|000s|100||101}}
{{bcd|r|100}} {{bcd|r|100|t}}  {{bcd|r|100|t|101}} {{bcd|r|100|}}
{{bcd|ig|100}} {{bcd|ig|100|t}}  {{bcd|ig|100|t|101}} {{bcd|ig|100|}}
{{bcd|tn|100}} {{bcd|tn|100|t}}  {{bcd|tn|100|t|101}} {{bcd|tn|100|}}
{{bcd|ot|100}} {{bcd|ot|100|t}}  {{bcd|ot|100|t|101}} {{bcd|ot|100|}}
{{bcd|at|100}} {{bcd|at|100|t}}  {{bcd|at|100|t|101}} {{bcd|at|100|}}
345{{r|MvsG5}} - 12 June/July 340{{r|MvsG5}} BC
350{{r|MvsG5}} - 12 July 348{{r|MvsG5}} BC
11{{r|MvsG5}} - 12 July 348{{r|MvsG5}} BCE
11{{r|MvsG5}} or 12 July 348{{r|MvsG5}} BCE
456 - 345/344 BC
345/344 - 250 BC
(c.100 BC – 44 BC / Reigned 46 – 44 BC)
BC dates false positives:
234 BCSC
235 BCERE
236 CE
237 CED
4th/3rd centuries BC
5th/4th millennia BC
May 4, 45, 35, 28 BC


[[Image:Caesar augustus.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Augustus as a magistrate; the statue's marble head was made c. 31–20 BC, the body sculpted in the 2nd century AD]]
March 15, 44 BC
 
March 12 BC
 
4, 45, 35, 28 BC


Try to convert this: 13th century{{nbsp}}BC?
Try to convert this: 13th century{{nbsp}}BC?
Line 22: Line 113:
14th century <small>BC</small>
14th century <small>BC</small>


{{bc-c|14th|t}} century <small>BC</small>
{{bc-c|14th}} century <small>BC</small>
 
Testing markup {{bc-c|14th}} century


2nd millennium BC
2nd millennium BC
Line 37: Line 130:


2550{{r|MvsG5}}<small>BC</small>
2550{{r|MvsG5}}<small>BC</small>
Tests for Web extension:
44/43 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>
100/99 - 85/84 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>
c.490-c.425 BCE




Line 62: Line 163:


Maiden whom Philip married either in 439{{r|MvsG2}}/38{{r|MvsG3}} or c. 437{{r|MvsG4}}/36{{r|MvsG5}}{{nbsp}}BC and was his seventh wife
Maiden whom Philip married either in 439{{r|MvsG2}}/38{{r|MvsG3}} or c. 437{{r|MvsG4}}/36{{r|MvsG5}}{{nbsp}}BC and was his seventh wife
* [[Eratosthenes]] ({{circa|276|194/195&nbsp;BC|lk=on}}), a Greek mathematician who [[On the measure of the Earth|calculated]] the circumference of the Earth and also the distance from the Earth to the Sun.
Year to decade pattern:
Something happened from 339{{r|MvsG2}}/338{{r|MvsG3}} to c. 220s{{nbsp}}BC, or not.
Something happened from 3200{{r|MvsG2}}/3100{{r|MvsG3}} to c. 220s{{nbsp}}BC, or not.
Decade to year pattern:
Something else happened in 430s or c. 437{{r|MvsG4}}/36{{r|MvsG5}}{{nbsp}}BC.
Something else happened in 430s or c. 6220{{r|MvsG4}}/10{{r|MvsG5}}{{nbsp}}BC.
6550/40 - 5430/20 BC
6450/30 BC


Decade ranges.
Decade ranges.
Line 118: Line 241:


Consul in 632 or 534, 522, 600 - 484, 481 and 479 BC.
Consul in 632 or 534, 522, 600 - 484, 481 and 479 BC.
Consul in summer 632 or 534, 522, 600 - 484, 481 and 479 BC.
Consul in May 30, 534, 522, 481 and 479 BC.
456 - fall 345 BC.
456 - September 345 BC.


the historian [[Polybius]] ({{circa|200}} – {{circa|118 BC}}), a Greek general sent to Rome
the historian [[Polybius]] ({{circa|200}} – {{circa|118 BC}}), a Greek general sent to Rome
Line 126: Line 258:


the historian [[Polybius]] ({{circa|200 – 118 BC}}), a Greek general sent to Rome
the historian [[Polybius]] ({{circa|200 – 118 BC}}), a Greek general sent to Rome
c.9,000 - c. 8,000 BC
c.9,000 - c.8,200 BC
9,000 - 8,000 BC


9000 - 8000 BC
9000 - 8000 BC
Line 134: Line 272:


9000 - 2000{{nbsp}}BC
9000 - 2000{{nbsp}}BC
10,000 - 2000 BC


10000 - 9000 BC
10000 - 9000 BC
Line 160: Line 300:


normal:
normal:
{{bc-i|20,000|b|20000}} - {{bc-i|8,500&nbsp;BC|b|8500}}
{{bc-i|20,000|t|20000}} - {{bc-i|8,500&nbsp;BC|t|8500}}


with inner spans:
with inner spans:
{{bc-i|20,000|b|20000}} - {{bc-i|8,500{{nbsp}}BC|b|8500}}
{{bc-i|20,000|t|20000}} - {{bc-i|8,500{{nbsp}}BC|t|8500}}


{{bc-i|3,500|b|3500}} - {{bc-i|2,500{{nbsp}}BC|b|2500}}
{{bc-i|3,500|t|3500}} - {{bc-i|2,500{{nbsp}}BC|t|2500}}


{{bc-y|3,500|b|3500}} - {{bc-y|2,500{{nbsp}}BC|b|2500}}
{{bc-y|3,500|t|3500}} - {{bc-y|2,500{{nbsp}}BC|t|2500}}


20,000 - {{bc-i|2,500{{nbsp}}BC}}
20,000 - {{bc-i|2,500{{nbsp}}BC}}
Line 179: Line 319:
{{bc-i|20,000}} - 8,500&nbsp;BC
{{bc-i|20,000}} - 8,500&nbsp;BC


{{bc-y|1,234 BC|b|1234}}
{{bc-y|1,234 BC|t|1234}}
 
 
something happened in {{ad-at|CE}} era


Between his crossing of the [[Rubicon|Rubicon River]] in {{bc-y|49 BC}}, and his [[Ides of March|assassination]] in {{bc-y|44&nbsp;BC}}, Caesar established a new constitution, which was intended to accomplish three separate goals.<ref name="Abbott, 133">Abbott, 133</ref> First, he wanted to suppress all armed resistance out in the provinces, and thus bring order back to the Republic. Second, he wanted to create a strong central government in Rome. And finally, he wanted to knit together the entire Republic into a single cohesive unit.<ref name="Abbott, 133">Abbott, 133</ref> The first goal was accomplished when Caesar defeated Pompey and his supporters.<ref name="Abbott, 133">Abbott, 133</ref> To accomplish the other two goals, he needed to ensure that his control over the government was undisputed,<ref name="Abbott, 134">Abbott, 134</ref> and so he assumed these powers by increasing his own authority, and by decreasing the authority of Rome's other political institutions. To increase his own powers, he assumed the important magistrates,<ref name="Abbott, 134">Abbott, 134</ref> and to weaken Rome's other political institutions, he instituted several additional reforms. He controlled the process by which candidates were nominated for magisterial elections, he appointed his own supporters to the senate, and he prevented hostile measures from being adopted by the assemblies.<ref name="Abbott, 134">Abbott, 134</ref>
Between his crossing of the [[Rubicon|Rubicon River]] in {{bc-y|49 BC}}, and his [[Ides of March|assassination]] in {{bc-y|44&nbsp;BC}}, Caesar established a new constitution, which was intended to accomplish three separate goals.<ref name="Abbott, 133">Abbott, 133</ref> First, he wanted to suppress all armed resistance out in the provinces, and thus bring order back to the Republic. Second, he wanted to create a strong central government in Rome. And finally, he wanted to knit together the entire Republic into a single cohesive unit.<ref name="Abbott, 133">Abbott, 133</ref> The first goal was accomplished when Caesar defeated Pompey and his supporters.<ref name="Abbott, 133">Abbott, 133</ref> To accomplish the other two goals, he needed to ensure that his control over the government was undisputed,<ref name="Abbott, 134">Abbott, 134</ref> and so he assumed these powers by increasing his own authority, and by decreasing the authority of Rome's other political institutions. To increase his own powers, he assumed the important magistrates,<ref name="Abbott, 134">Abbott, 134</ref> and to weaken Rome's other political institutions, he instituted several additional reforms. He controlled the process by which candidates were nominated for magisterial elections, he appointed his own supporters to the senate, and he prevented hostile measures from being adopted by the assemblies.<ref name="Abbott, 134">Abbott, 134</ref>
Line 201: Line 344:


After Caesar's assassination, [[Mark Antony]], who at the time had been Caesar's fellow consul, eventually formed an alliance with Caesar's adopted son and great-nephew, [[Augustus|Gaius Octavian]]. Along with [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]], who was Caesar's magister equitum (master of horse) at the time of his assassination, they formed an alliance known as the [[Second Triumvirate]]. They held powers that were nearly identical to the powers that Caesar had held under his constitution, and as such, the senate and assemblies remained powerless. The conspirators were defeated at the [[Battle of Philippi]] in 42 BC. Lepidus became powerless, and Antony went to Egypt to seek glory in the east, while Octavian remained in Rome. Eventually, however, Antony and Octavian fought against each other in one last battle. Antony was defeated in the naval [[Battle of Actium]] in 31 BC, and committed suicide in 30 BC. In 29 BC, Octavian returned to Rome, as the unchallenged master of the state. In 27 BC, Octavian offered to give up the Dictatorial powers which he had held since 42 BC, but the senate refused, and thus ratified his status as master of the state. He became the first [[Roman Emperor]], [[Augustus]], and the transition from [[Roman Republic]] to [[Roman Empire]] was complete.
After Caesar's assassination, [[Mark Antony]], who at the time had been Caesar's fellow consul, eventually formed an alliance with Caesar's adopted son and great-nephew, [[Augustus|Gaius Octavian]]. Along with [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]], who was Caesar's magister equitum (master of horse) at the time of his assassination, they formed an alliance known as the [[Second Triumvirate]]. They held powers that were nearly identical to the powers that Caesar had held under his constitution, and as such, the senate and assemblies remained powerless. The conspirators were defeated at the [[Battle of Philippi]] in 42 BC. Lepidus became powerless, and Antony went to Egypt to seek glory in the east, while Octavian remained in Rome. Eventually, however, Antony and Octavian fought against each other in one last battle. Antony was defeated in the naval [[Battle of Actium]] in 31 BC, and committed suicide in 30 BC. In 29 BC, Octavian returned to Rome, as the unchallenged master of the state. In 27 BC, Octavian offered to give up the Dictatorial powers which he had held since 42 BC, but the senate refused, and thus ratified his status as master of the state. He became the first [[Roman Emperor]], [[Augustus]], and the transition from [[Roman Republic]] to [[Roman Empire]] was complete.
=== Late Bronze Age ({{bc-i|2000}}–{{bc-i|1200 BC}}) ===


==See also==
==See also==

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